Efficient electrolysis or photolysis of water, which is of interest for the generation of hydrogen as well as other for other uses, requires stable, corrosion resistant, and catalytic anode materials. Water or hydroxide anion must be oxidized through a series of steps to produce molecular oxygen or reactive oxygen intermediates. Efficient oxidation of water requires a durable material that is not susceptible to oxidative corrosion in water that produces an electrically insulating and/or unreactive surface. The oxidation of other chemical species, including chloride anion, various organic feedstock such are olefins, aromatic and alkylated aromatic compounds, also benefit from durable anodes. The detection and quantification of many chemical species by oxidation also benefit from durable anodes. In addition, anode materials with certain electronic properties are better than other materials for the oxidation of water or these other uses. Thus, there is a need for anodes for oxidation of water and other chemical species that overcome deficiencies with current technologies. This restricts the practical choices of the materials and anode structures that can be used.